Principles of War

Principles of War used by the Great Maratha Warrior

1. Selection and Maintenance of Aim

As war is only a part of political intercourse, it follows that the strategic aim should be subordinated to political aim. On the other hand, if war is to an effective instrument of policy, the political aim should be modified in accordance to the means available at hand. An objective may be desirable politically, but that which is politically desirable must be militarily possible.

The first point to Shivaji Maharaj's career is that Shivaji Maharaj had realistic grasp of the limitations of his means and the wisdom to adjust his ends accordingly. Thus Shivaji Maharaj modified his ultimate aim of the liberation of India to the more immediate aim of establishment of his authority in the Konkan, the narrow strip of land between the natural rampart of the Sahyadris and the sea. The establishment of his authority in this easily defensible area, additionally strengthened by extensive fortifications, would then provide Shivaji Maharaj a first base for further expansion.

The plains east of Sahyadris were easy to conquer but difficult to hold, particularly in view of his weakness in heavy cavalry and artillery. There were times, such as after the destruction of Afzal Khan’s army, when Shivaji Maharaj could have overrun these plains, but Shivaji Maharaj showed remarkable restraint in not venturing in such a premature expansion in an area where his forces would have been at a advantage. The liberation of the Konkan was Shivaji Maharaj's immediate goal and Shivaji Maharaj kept to it. Never did Shivaji Maharaj waved from the purpose. Never did bite off than one could chew.

The position Shivaji Maharaj held east of the Sahyadris was no more than outposts or forward defended localities in the main strategic line of defense. In defensive, they threatened his enemy’s communication and thus acted as a brake on any invader. In offensive, they formed springboards for his mobile striking forces. The objects of his frequent cavalry raids in the pains was not conquest but attrition of the enemy’s forces and attainment of the much needed finance to sustain his army.
Up to 1675, Shivaji Maharajhe continued his expansion by pushing his frontier northwards and southwards in the coastal strip and along the Sahaydri range only after this base was firmly established did he attention to the Karnatka.

2. Mobility

The strength of the Mughal army lay in their heavy cavalry and artillery. However their artillery was cumbersome and hampered strategic mobility. Shivaji Maharaj, himself was handicapped by lack of artillery, turned this very drawback to his advantage by the skillful employment of his light cavalry.
The Maratha army was lightly equipped and was free from the encumbrance of an elaborate supply system. It lived off the court and could subsist on the scantiest of food. It was their greater hardihood and superior discipline which had endowed Shivaji’s army with such remarkable mobility.
An English letter dated 26thjune 1664 says about Shivaji Maharaj,
“Shivaji Maharaj is so famously infamous for his notorious theft that report has made Shivaji Maharaj an airy body, and added wings or else it were impossible Shivaji Maharaj could be at so many places as Shivaji Maharaj said to be at, all at one time."
“Sometimes Shivaji Maharaj certainly believe to be in one, and in a day or two in another place, and so in half dozen remote one from another, and their burns plunders all without control, so that they ascribe to Shivaji Maharaj to perform more than a herculean labor that is become the talk of all conditions of people.”
And again, “… It is none of his business to lay siege to any place that is fortified against him, for it will not turn him to account. Shivaji Maharaj's endeavor was for a running banquet and to plunder and burn those towns that have neither defense nor guard.”
To add the effectiveness of his cavalry arm, Shivaji Maharaj repaired and built a wonderful network of fortresses which served as a supply deports and places of refuge for Maratha army.
With superior mobility, Shivaji Maharaj could always decline battle or force it on his own terms. His mobility disarmed all resistance because it enabled him to seek out weak spots and strike with decisive effect. By his speed, he outstripped rumor and often arrived before his enemy was aware that Maratha army was near. Enemy was thus bewildered by the swift and unpredictable movement. As a result, their armies became exhausted in fruitless pursuit exposing thereby some other weak points their line of defense. Shivaji Maharaj's cavalry raids deep inside enemy territory conclusively proved how the Mughal army was helpless and their territory defenseless before Maratha striking forces.

3. Surprise

The purpose of strategy is to diminish the possibility of resistance by upsetting the enemies physical and mental balance . This purpose is fulfilled by exploiting the elements of mobility and surprise. Mobility produces surprise which in turn enhances mobility by diminishing the possibility of resistance. Shivaji Maharaj’s career as a soldier abounded in surprises. In the 1648 campaign against Fath Khan’s army, Shivaji Maharaj surprised the enemy by attacking him at an unexpected place. In the Jawali campaign, Shivaji Maharaj fixed the Chandra Rao’s attention towards the Radtondi pass and then fell upon his rear unexpectedly by skillful turning movements. In 1659, Shivaji Maharaj surpised Afzal Khan’s army in the forest of Jawali. In 1661, Shivaji Maharaj threw Surya Rao of Shringapur off guard by a ruse. Shivaji Maharaj crossed the forest south of Surat by unfrequented tracks and surprised and sacked it twice. In 1664, the speed with which Shivaji Maharaj acted surprised and paralyzed the enemies. Shivaji Maharaj first, swooped down on Baji Ghorpade’s camp unexpectedly than turned back and fell upon Khawas Khan’s division. Since the reduction of Mughal fortresses in Baglan in 1672, the number of alternative objectives which Shivaji Maharaj threatened kept the enemies guessing as to the point of danger and enabled him to pounds upon unguarded objectives. He was a master of stratagems and made free use of them. The new technique which he developed for the capture of hill fortresses was also base on surprise.

4. Concentration

The essence of the principles of concentration is distraction. If we merely concentrate our forces the enemy will also do the same and we shall not gain advantage over him only out of our concentration what is important is to induce the enemy to disperse his forces so as to achieve a decisive concentration at a selected time and place. This required distraction of enemy forces by series of threats. The principle of concentration means concentration of strength against weakness. This is the essence of Sun Tzus sayings quoted below.
“To be certain to take what you attack is to attack a place the enemy does not protect.”
“Therefore, against those skilled in attack an enemy does not know where to defend.”
“He whose advance is irresistible plunges into his enemy’s weak positions.”
“If I am able to determine the enemy’s disposition while at the same time I conceal my own then I can concentrate and he must divide. And if I concentrate while he divides, I can use my entire strength to attack a fraction of his. Thus I will be numerically superior. Then if I m able to use many to strike a few of a selected points, those I deal with in dire straits.”
“The enemy must not know where I intend to give battle. For if he does not know where I intend to give battle he must prepare in a great many places. And when he prepares in a great many places, those I have to fight in any one place will be few.”
“And when he prepares everywhere he will be weak everywhere.”
“Now an army may liken to water, for just as flowing water avoids the heights and hastens to the low lands, so an army avoids strength and strikes weakness.”

As Shivaji Maharaj’s strategical aim was not to bring the enemy to battle but to wear them out by military pinpricks,  Maratha army generally operated in small but highly mobile light cavalry detachments. However, Shivaji Maharaj has fully grasped the true meaning of concentration- not near quantitative concentration, but concentration of strength against weakness, which is achieved by distracting enemy forces so as to obtain a superiority of force at the decisive place and time .The distraction –both physical and psychological – of enemy forces caused by his plundering raids paved the way for almost unopposed expansion along the coastal strip. By threatening several points at once Shivaji Maharaj hypotinized them into inaction and thuds deprived them of their freedom of action.

Cosme de Guarda writes: “ Shivaji Maharaj after sent expedition to different places at the same time and in all of them Shivaji Maharaj was convoked and was in command. The question is still unsolved whether Shivaji Maharaj substituted others for himself or (whether) Shivaji Maharaj was a magician or a devil acted in his place. Much has been said about it in India and there is much diversions of opinion as usual if I had to give my opinion, I would say that as Shivaji Maharaj sent expeditions two, three and four places and at the same time and as with every regiment went a Captain whom all obeyed and call Shivaji Raja (name that he had assumed after his rebellion), this mistake was caused by such people who came everyday (fresh recruits) and did not know him well as yet. Hence arose believe that Shivaji Maharaj used to be in different places met and all affirmed that Shivaji Maharaj in person sacked these places on such a day or such a night at such an hour. And as among Indians much less suffices to confirm much more, there grew the form belief that Shivaji was everywhere.”
The northward expansion of the Maratha state increased the scope for raiding by increasing the width of the front. On the other hand, the increased raiding activities kept the Mughal force tied down in defending their territory and consequently increased the scope for an unopposed northward expansion.
Under cover of these cavalry raids, Shivaji Maharaj infantry overran the coastal strip and in turn acquired new bases for further raids. Maratha raids in the first half of 1670 pinned down Mughal forces east of the Sahyadris and enabled him to obtain a decisive superiority of force in Konkan. The distraction caused to Daud Khan’s army by his Karanja raid in November 1670 Moropant to reduce the fortresses in Baglan without interference.
And though the destruction of the enemy’s army was not the Strategic aim, Shivaji Maharaj was quick to seize the chance afforded by the enemy’s dispersion and stuck lika a thunderbolt, as Shivaji Maharaj did at Shirwal(1648) and Salher(1672).

5. Security

Shivaji Maharaj’s protective system was based in a formidable network of fortresses. The artillery in those days could not compete with strength of fortifications. The best means of taking a fort were still mining, starvation and treachery. Shivaji Maharaj was a great fort-builder. The intensive fortification of his kingdom tended to slow down invaders, hampered their movements, absorbed their manpower and created opportunities for a counter stroke. For his own army, these fortress pivots formed protected supply depots and places of refuge, enabling it in maneuver freely. He was quickly in consolidating his new conquests by fortifying strategic points.
The security of field forces was ensured by a combination of secrecy, surprise, mobility and intelligence. It is remarkable that throughout his life he was never once surprised by an enemy force.

6. Offensive Action

Shivaji Maharaj well understood the principle that attack is the best defense. Shivaji Maharaj avoided pitched battles and made the utmost use of fortresses to wear down the enemy strength in besieging them. But defense was by no means static, Shivaji Maharaj usually took the tactical offensive using fortresses as pivots of maneuver and exploiting the superior mobility of his light cavalry. Now and again we see him attacking weak points in the enemy’s disposition. He thus developed his own plans and dislocated those of the enemy by compelling them to dance on his tune; these offensive strokes must have boosted the morale of troops even when Shivaji Maharaj was strategically on the defensive side.